BRIEF NOTES

 

This Chapter inspired from NCERT (History) , offers a detailed analysis of the key points Harappan culture, one of the earliest urban civilizations in the Indus Valley region.

The Indus Valley civilization is also known as the Harappan civilization because the first city of the civilization to be discovered was Harappa.

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, named after the first site excavated in 1921.

 

Here’s a breakdown of the key points as part of revision:

 

How do we know about the Indus Valley civilisation?

 

• • Initial Awareness (1842): Charles Masson’s observations(also known as James Lewis) in 1842 sparked initial interest in the ruins, but it wasn’t a full-fledged archaeological discovery.
• • Accidental Unearthing (1856): The East India Company’s railway construction work in 1856 led to the accidental discovery of ruins, highlighting the vastness of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• • Systematic Excavation (1921 onwards): The real turning point came with the archaeological excavations led by Sir John Marshall and Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. These excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro provided the most substantial evidence about the Indus Valley Civilization.

 

So, the information you read complements what we discussed earlier:

• • It emphasizes the historical context of the discovery.
  • It highlights the role of both accidental findings and planned excavations.

 

Here’s how the different sources of knowledge come together:

• • Initial Awareness: Historical accounts like Masson’s observations point to the presence of ancient ruins.
  • Systematic Excavation: Archaeological digs unearth physical evidence like city structures, artifacts, and skeletal remains.
  • Analysis of Evidence: Studying these artifacts and ruins helps us understand their daily life, technology, and social organization.
  • Deciphering the Script (Ongoing Challenge): If the script is deciphered, it could provide invaluable insights into their language, literature, and history.
  • The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization is a continuous process. New excavations, ongoing research on the script, and analysis of existing evidence will continue to enrich our understanding of this fascinating civilization.

 

Key points about Harappan culture:

1. Flourishing Civilization:

• • The Harappan culture thrived between 2550 B.C. and 1900 B.C.
  • It stretched from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the northeast.
  • Over 1500 Harappan sites have been discovered, with Harappa and Mohenjo-daro being the most prominent cities. Other significant sites include Chanhu daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Sutkagendor, and Surkotada.

 

                                              (PC: Google Images)

2. Advanced Town Planning:

• • Harappan cities showcased remarkable town planning with a grid system of roads dividing the city into blocks.
  • Mohenjo-daro had a well-built citadel and a ‘Great Bath,’ suggesting a focus on hygiene.
  • Granaries in major cities indicate a developed agricultural system with surplus storage.

 

3. Agriculture and Domestication:

• • The Indus people cultivated wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, and mustard. Lothal provides evidence of rice cultivation as early as 1800 B.C.
    Granaries in Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and possibly Kalibangan suggest food storage. Cereals might have been collected as taxes and stored for wages or emergencies.
• • The Harappans were the first to cultivate cotton, and their domestic animals included oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses, and camels. Evidence for horses is less conclusive.Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjo-daro and from a doubtful terracotta figuring from Lothal. The remains of the horse are reported from Sutkotada, situated in west Gujarat, and belong to around B.C. but it is doubtful. In any case the Harappan culture was not horse-centred. Neither the bones of horse nor its representations appear in early and mature Harappan culture. Elephants and rhinoceroses were known to them.

 

River in Indus valley Civilization:

The Indus River itself was central to the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization. The region gets its name from the river, and the civilization thrived along its banks. Here’s why the Indus River was so important:

• • Water Source: The Indus River provided a reliable source of freshwater for the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. They used it for drinking, irrigation, and transportation.

• • Fertile Land: The annual floods of the Indus deposited fertile silt along its floodplain, creating ideal conditions for agriculture. This allowed the Harappans to grow crops like wheat, barley, and cotton.

• • Trade Route: The Indus River served as a vital trade route, connecting the Harappan cities to other parts of South Asia and beyond. This facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas.

• • Settlement Location: Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, were strategically located near the Indus River or its tributaries. This provided easy access to water, fertile land, and transportation.

In essence, the Indus River was the lifeblood of the Indus Valley Civilization. It shaped their settlements, agriculture, trade, and overall prosperity.

 

4. Craft and Technology:

• • Harappans were skilled bronzeworkers, using copper and tin to create tools, weapons, and utensils.
  • They were experts in pottery, producing a distinct style with painted designs.
  • Seals with animal motifs served as a possible form of writing or record-keeping.
  • Evidence suggests expertise in weaving, boat-making, and bead-making.

 

5. Trade and Commerce:

• • Trade played a significant role in the Harappan economy, with evidence of exchange within the Indus Valley and with neighboring areas like Mesopotamia.
  • They used bullock carts and boats for transportation.

 

6. Weights and Measures:

• • Harappan weights suggest a system based on multiples of 16, similar to the traditional 16 annas in a rupee. They also possessed measuring instruments made of sticks, some even made of bronze.

 

7. Social Structure and Religion:

• • The social structure remains unclear, but a centralized authority is likely due to cultural homogeneity.
  • Terracotta figurines suggest the worship of a mother goddess and a male deity with horns.
  • The Harappan script, with around 400 pictographic characters, remains undeciphered.

 

The Male Deity in the Indus Valley

• • The male deity is represented on a seal. This god has three horned heads. He is represented in the sitting postrure of a yogi, placing one foot on the other. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The depicted god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva.

 

8. Political Organization:

• • The Harappan political structure remains unclear. However, the cultural homogeneity across the Indus civilization suggests a possible central authority. The vastness of the civilization suggests a large political unit, possibly comparable to the Mauryan Empire.

 

9. The Harappan Script:

• • The Harappan people developed a writing system like the Mesopotamians. Though discovered in the 1800s, it remains undeciphered. The script consists of around 4000 pictographic characters, each representing a sound, idea, or object.

 

10. Harappan Pottery and Art:

• • Harappan pottery, known for its intricate designs featuring trees, circles, and human figures, showcases their artistic expertise. Seals with inscriptions and depictions of animals are considered their finest artistic creations. Metal figurines, such as the “Dancing Girl” of bronze, demonstrate their skill in metalwork. Stone sculptures are also present.

 

What are the unique features of various few Indus Valley Civilization cities?

 

Unique Features Beyond Grid-Patterned Streets:

 

While grid-patterned streets were a hallmark of Indus Valley Civilization urban planning, some cities boasted additional distinctive features:

 

Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan):

• • The Great Bath: This large public bath with a central pool remains a marvel of engineering for its time.
  • Advanced Drainage System: Mohenjo-daro’s elaborate covered drainage system highlights their commitment to sanitation.
  • Granaries: Evidence suggests the presence of granaries, indicating a centralized food storage system.

 

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan):

• • Fortified Citadel: Harappa had a well-defined citadel, possibly housing the ruling class or administrative centers.
  • Planned Neighborhoods: The city seemed to be divided into specific functional areas, suggesting organized urban planning.
  • Granaries: Similar to Mohenjo-daro, Harappa likely had granaries for storing surplus food.

 

Dholavira (Gujarat, India):

• • Tripartite Division: Dholavira’s most unique feature is its division into a fortified citadel, a middle town, and a lower town, suggesting a possible social hierarchy and functional zoning.
  • Water Management System: The city had reservoirs and other features suggesting a well-developed water management system crucial in the region’s arid environment.
  • Stepwells: Evidence points towards the presence of stepwells, a unique feature for accessing groundwater.

 

Lothal (Gujarat, India):

• • Docks and Warehouses: Lothal is believed to have been a major port city, with evidence of docks and warehouses suggesting maritime trade activities.
  • Bead Making Workshops: Archaeological finds indicate the presence of workshops specializing in crafting beads, a significant industry during this period.
  • Unique Rectangular Tank: Lothal is known for its large rectangular tank, possibly used for ritual bathing or water storage.

 

Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India):

• • Fire Altars: Kalibangan is known for its well-preserved fire altars, hinting at the significance of fire rituals in their culture.
  • Seven Layers of Occupation: Archaeological excavations reveal seven distinct layers of habitation, showcasing the long-term existence of the settlement.
  • Unique Defensive Structures: Kalibangan had a distinctive defensive system with a mudbrick rampart and bastions.

 

Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India):

• • Largest Harappan Site: Rakhigarhi is considered the largest Harappan site excavated so far, suggesting it might have been a major urban center.
  • Massive Granaries: Evidence suggests the presence of massive granaries, indicating a significant role in food storage and distribution.
  • Earthen Mound: A large, elevated earthen mound is a prominent feature of the site, possibly serving as a religious or administrative center.

 

By exploring these unique features, we gain a richer understanding of the diversity and ingenuity of the Indus Valley Civilization. They weren’t just about grid-patterned streets; each city had its own character and specializations.

 

Decline of the Harappan Civilization:

 

The reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization remain a topic of debate among archaeologists and historians. Here, we explore some prominent theories:

 

• • Climate Change: A possible cause is a shift in the monsoonal patterns, leading to increased aridity and a drying up of the Saraswati River, a vital source of water. This could have disrupted agriculture and strained resources. Geological evidence suggests the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, which some identify with the Saraswati, may have dried up around 1900 BCE, coinciding with the decline.
• • Flooding: The Indus Valley is prone to floods, and some scholars believe that catastrophic floods may have devastated settlements and disrupted the civilization’s infrastructure. Mohenjo-daro itself shows evidence of repeated flooding.
• • Overgrazing and Deforestation: Another theory suggests that the Harappans may have overgrazed pastures and cut down trees for fuel and construction materials, leading to environmental degradation and impacting agricultural productivity.
• • Social Unrest: Some scholars propose internal social unrest or conflicts within Harappan society as a contributing factor to the decline. However, archaeological evidence for widespread warfare is lacking.

 

The Arrival of Aryans and the Rig Veda:

 

Traditional View:

• • Aryan Invasion Theory: This theory, now largely discredited, proposed a large-scale migration of Aryans from Central Asia around 1500 BCE.
  • Conflict and Replacement: This migration was believed to have led to a violent conflict with the Harappans, ultimately causing the decline of their civilization.
  • Rig Veda as Evidence: The Rig Veda, with its references to battles and fortified cities, was seen as evidence of this conflict.

 

Current Understanding:

• • Gradual Migration: There’s growing evidence suggesting a gradual movement of Indo-Aryan people into the region, not a single invasion.
    Interaction and Cultural Exchange: This interaction may have involved trade, cultural exchange, and potentially some conflict, but not necessarily a complete overthrow of the Harappan civilization.
  • Multiple Factors for Decline: The decline of the Harappan Civilization likely resulted from a combination of factors like climate change, environmental degradation, and social unrest. The arrival of Indo-Aryan people might have been just one piece of this puzzle.
  • Rig Veda’s Limited Scope: The Rig Veda primarily reflects the culture of a nomadic pastoral society, not necessarily the reality of the entire Indus Valley region.

 

Uncertainties and Ongoing Research:

• • The exact nature of the interaction between the Indus Valley people and Indo-Aryan speakers is still under debate. Archaeological evidence doesn’t provide a clear picture of a violent conquest.
  • Linguistic studies suggest some overlap between Harappan and Vedic languages, hinting at potential interaction.

 

In Conclusion:

• • The Aryan arrival likely wasn’t the sole cause of the Harappan decline.
  • The Rig Veda offers a glimpse into one aspect of the post-Harappan era, but it doesn’t tell the whole story.
  • Further research is needed to understand the complex dynamics that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilization and the rise of Vedic culture.

 

Overall Conclusion:

• • The Harappan civilization, despite its eventual decline, left an indelible mark on the Indian subcontinent. Their advanced urban planning, impressive engineering feats, and sophisticated craft traditions stand as a testament to their ingenuity. Understanding the factors that led to their decline can offer valuable insights into the challenges faced by complex societies and the importance of environmental sustainability. Further archaeological research holds the key to unlocking more secrets about this remarkable civilization.

 

UPSC History Mains Questions:

 

Model Answer:

 

The Harappan Civilization displayed remarkable urban planning skills evident in their well-organized cities. Key features included:

• • Grid System: Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were laid out in a grid pattern, with intersecting roads dividing the city into blocks. This ensured efficient movement and organization.
  • Burnt Bricks: The extensive use of burnt bricks for construction showcased their advanced technology compared to sun-dried bricks used elsewhere. This enhanced durability of structures.
  • Citadel and Lower Town: Cities often had a well-defined citadel, possibly housing administrative or religious structures, and a lower town with residences.
  • Drainage System: Mohenjo-daro boasted a sophisticated drainage system, with every house having its own courtyard and bathroom connected to an elaborate network. This highlights their concern for sanitation.
  • Great Bath: Public structures like the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro demonstrate impressive brickwork and suggest a focus on ritualistic practices.

These features collectively illustrate the Harappans’ sophisticated approach to urban life, with well-planned layouts, advanced construction techniques, and infrastructure development for sanitation and public activities.

 

 

Model Answer:

 

Trade played a crucial role in the Harappan civilization’s economy and society. Here’s how:

• • Extensive Network: The Harappans engaged in trade within their cultural zone, exchanging materials like stone, metal, and shells. They likely used a barter system due to the absence of a known coinage system.
  • Transportation: Evidence suggests they used boats and bullock carts for transportation, facilitating movement of goods over longer distances.
  • Foreign Connections: Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia, indicating trade links with that region. Mesopotamian records also mention trade with Meluha, the ancient name for the Indus Valley.
  • Economic Benefits: Trade brought essential raw materials like copper and tin for bronze production and facilitated the exchange of finished goods. This contributed to the overall economic prosperity of the civilization.
  • Social Interaction: Trade fostered cultural exchange and interaction with other societies, enriching the Harappan social fabric.

In conclusion, the Harappans’ well-developed trade network played a significant role in their economic success, resource acquisition, and social interaction with other civilizations.

 

 

Model Answer:

 

• • The Indus script, with its over 400 pictographic characters, remains largely undeciphered. Deciphering it holds immense significance. It could unlock a treasure trove of information about the Harappan language, social structure, and way of life. It might shed light on their governance, religious beliefs, and trade practices. Understanding their language could revolutionize our understanding of this ancient civilization.
• • However, deciphering the Indus script presents several challenges. The lack of a known linguistic connection to existing languages makes it difficult to find a starting point. Additionally, the limited corpus of available inscriptions further hinders efforts. Despite these challenges, advancements in archaeological techniques and computational analysis offer hope for future breakthroughs. Deciphering the Indus script has the potential to rewrite our understanding of the Harappan civilization and its place in human history.

 

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